Cambodia Education

About 48 percent of the Cambodian population is literate. Government plans to reestablish and expand the educational system, which was disrupted by warfare in the late 1970s, are being realized. All public education is free. In the 1990 and 1991 academic year about 1.3 million pupils attended some 4600 primary schools. Secondary and higher education remains limited, however. Institutions of higher education were closed in the late 1970s, and many instructors were murdered or died of starvation or disease. By 1990 seven institutions of higher education were open, with a total enrollment of about 6600 students.

Cambodia, also known as Kampuchea, republic in southeastern Asia, bounded on the northeast by Laos, on the east and southeast by Vietnam, on the southwest by the Gulf of Thailand, and on the west and northwest by Thailand. Cambodia covers a total area of 181,035 sq km (69,898 sq mi). The capital and largest city of Cambodia is Phnom Penh.

Land and Resources
Cambodia's terrain is dominated by a large, low-lying alluvial plain that occupies most of the central part of the country. The main features of the plain are the Mekong River, which flows from north to south through Cambodia, and the Tonle Sap (Great Lake), which covers an area of about 2600 sq km (about 1000 sq mi) in the dry season to about 10,400 sq km (about 4015 sq mi) in the rainy season. The outlet of Tonle Sap is a river of the same name, which during the dry season flows south into the Mekong River. During the rainy season the floodwaters of the Mekong River back into the Tonle Sap, inundating the central part of the country. To the east of the alluvial plain lies an undulating plateau region. Mountain ranges fringe the plain on the southwest, where the Cardamom Mountains form a physical barrier along the country's coast, and on the north by the Phnum Dangrek.
Known mineral resources are limited; phosphate and gemstones are most important. Cambodia has an enormous hydroelectric power potential, but its development has been hindered by the warfare and civil strife of the 1970s and 1980s.

Climate
Cambodia has a tropical monsoon climate. The average annual temperature is about 26.7° C (about 80° F). A rainy season extends from mid-April through mid-October. Average annual rainfall is about 1400 mm (about 55 in) on the central plains and more than 3800 mm (about 150 in) in mountainous areas and along the coast.

Plants and Animals
About three-fourths of Cambodia is forested. The densest forests are found in the mountains and along the southwestern coast. Savannas, covered with high, sharp grass, are present in the higher plains and plateaus. Such trees as rubber, kapok, palm, coconut, and banana are common.
Wildlife is varied and includes elephant, deer, wild ox, buffalo, panther, bear, and tiger. Cormorant, crane, pheasant, and wild duck are also found, as are poisonous snakes, including cobras.

Population
About 94 percent of the people are Cambodians, ethnically known as Khmer. Minorities such as Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai, and Cham-Malays (who inhabit the mountainous regions) make up most of the remaining 6 percent. The population is more than 85 percent rural.

Population Characteristics
The population of Cambodia (1990 estimate) was 8,246,000. The overall population density was about 46 persons per sq km (118 per sq mi). During the late 1970s the larger cities were depopulated, with residents fleeing or being sent to rural areas.
The capital, Phnom Penh (population, 1991 estimate, 900,000), is situated at the junction of the Mekong and Tonle Sap rivers. Other major cities are Batdambang (population, 1987, 45,000), Kampong Cham (population, 1987, 33,000), and Kampot (estimated population, 13,000). The major port is Kampong Saom, formerly Sihanoukville, on the Gulf of Thailand.

Language and Religion
The official language is Khmer, or Cambodian. French was formerly an important secondary language, but its use has been discouraged.
Theravada (Hinayana) Buddhism is the dominant religion and is adhered to by about 90 percent of the population. Other religions include Roman Catholicism, Islam, and Mahayana Buddhism; the mountain tribes are animists.

Culture
The cultural heritage of the Khmer dynasties is reflected in many facets of contemporary Cambodia. Many buildings, such as the Royal Palace in Phnom Penh, are decorated in the Khmer architectural style and use such motifs as the garuda, a mythical symbolic bird in the Hindu religion. Handicraft items, often in woven gold or silver lamé, also reflect ancient motifs. The classical Cambodian dance mimes in the most traditional style the legendary lives of ancient religious deities.
The ruins of the ancient Khmer empire, found in northwestern Cambodia, constitute one of the richest and most remarkable archaeological sites in the world. Particularly noteworthy are the ruins of the Khmer capital of Angkor Thom, built about 850, and to the south, the temple of Angkor Wat (or Angor Vat), built between 1112 and 1152.

Economy
Agriculture is the mainstay of the Cambodian economy. Before the onset of warfare and civil disorder during the 1970s and 1980s, Cambodia was largely self-sufficient in food products, and in spite of low yields per unit area and the planting of only one crop a year, the country exported sizable amounts of rice. By 1974 rice had to be imported. Production of rubber, the other major crop, also fell. In 1975 the new Khmer Rouge government nationalized all means of production, and agriculture was collectivized. Crop production rose slightly until warfare in 1978 and 1979 disrupted the harvesting and planting of rice. Widespread famine followed. Disruption was also severe in the country's small manufacturing sector, and many transportation and communication links were destroyed. By the mid-1980s both agriculture and manufacturing had begun to recover from the effects of years of warfare. Nevertheless, Cambodia remained one of the world's poorest countries; in 1990, the per-capita Gross National Product was about $130, among the lowest in the world.

Agriculture
Rice is the most important crop of Cambodian agriculture. In peacetime some 80 percent of the cultivated land is planted in rice; annual production during the late 1980s was estimated at 2 million metric tons. Rubber, the other leading crop, is primarily grown in the eastern plateaus. Other important agricultural products include corn, cassava, soybeans, sesame, palm sugar, and pepper. Mangoes, bananas, and pineapples are grown for local consumption.

Forestry, Fishing, and Mining
Of the extensive, potentially valuable forests, only a small proportion has been exploited, mainly because of Cambodia's poor transportation facilities. The annual timber harvest was about 5.5 million cu m (194 million cu ft) during the late 1980s.
Fishing is an important economic activity; most of the annual fish catch (74,000 metric tons in the late 1980s) is consumed locally. The Tonle Sap provides one of the largest freshwater fishery resources in Southeast Asia. Carp, perch, and smelt are the principal varieties of fish caught.
Zircons, sapphires, and rubies are mined in limited amounts in the west, and salt is found in the central provinces. Other mineral resources include bauxite and phosphates.

Manufacturing
Cambodia's limited industry was severely damaged during the 1970s and has been only partially rebuilt since that time. Industrial products in the late 1980s included 50,000 metric tons of cement and 28,000 metric tons of processed rubber.

Currency and Banking
The unit of currency is the new riel, consisting of 100 sen. The exchange rate for the new riel has been unstable. The average exchange rate in 1991 was 700 riels per U.S. $1; by late December 1993, more than 3000 riels equalled U.S. $1. The National Bank of Kampuchea (1980) is the sole bank of issue. Money, which had been officially abolished in 1978, was reintroduced in 1980.

Commerce and Trade
In peacetime the principal Cambodian exports are rice and rice products, rubber, corn, and wood products. The total annual value of exports dropped from about $60 million in the early 1970s to about $12 million in the mid-1980s. By the late 1980s, however, exports had risen to about 832 million annually. The chief imports were metals, machinery, textiles, mineral products, and foodstuffs; their total value was about $147 million annually in the late-1980s.

Transportation
In the late 1980s Cambodia had about 14,500 km (about 9000 mi) of roads of all types; some one-fifth of these were paved. A modern highway links Phnom Penh with the port of Kampong Saom. A railway between the capital and Batdambang also extends northeast to the Thai frontier. Another rail line connects Phnom Penh and Kampong Saom. The entire railway system extended about 650 km (about 400 mi) in the late 1980s. Inland waterways, including navigable sections of the main rivers, total about 1400 km (about 870 mi) in the rainy season and less than 650 km (less than 400 mi) at other times. An international airport is near Phnom Penh.

Communications
All major Cambodian communications systems are controlled by the government. Radio services link the large cities; telephone, telegraph, and postal services were resumed in 1979. In the late 1980s the country had some 753,000 radios and 48,600 television sets.

Labor
Nearly 75 percent of the Cambodian labor force is engaged in agriculture. The Cambodian Federation of Trade Unions is the leading labor organization.

Government
In April 1975, Cambodia came under the rule of the Khmer Rouge, as Democratic Kampuchea, thus ending its 600-year-old monarchy. In 1979 a rebel organization, the Kampuchean National United Front for National Salvation (KNUFNS), deposed the Khmer Rouge government with the backing of Vietnamese troops and established the People's Republic of Kampuchea; the country's official name was changed to the State of Cambodia in 1989.
The KNUFNS established a 14-member People's Revolutionary Council to govern the country. A draft constitution was promulgated in March 1981, and in May elections were held for the 117 seats of the National Assembly. Executive power was vested in the chairman of the Council of State and the chairman of the Council of Ministers (the premier). Remnants of the Khmer Rouge and other groups organized the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea in opposition to the Vietnamese-backed regime and were able to retain Cambodia's seat at the United Nations (UN). Continued armed conflict between these factions made it virtually impossible to govern the country effectively.
In October 1991 an agreement was signed providing for the UN and a 12-member Supreme National Council to share power until the election of a constituent assembly. Prince Norodom Sihanouk was elected council chairman. The popular election, in May 1993, resulted in a new coalition government. In September 1993 the government ratified a new constitution that provided for a pluralistic democratic government with a limited monarchy.

Defense
In the late 1980s Cambodia had an estimated 99,300 persons in the armed forces. A force of about 140,000 Vietnamese troops occupied the country from 1979 to 1989.

History
The Mon and the Khmer peoples moved into Southeast Asia before the Christian era, probably from the north, arriving before their present neighbors—the Vietnamese, Lao, and Thai. Indian cultural borrowings transformed the early kingdom of Cambodia, providing a writing system, architectural styles, religions (Hinduism and Buddhism), the concept of the god-king (deva-raja), and a highly stratified class system.

The Khmer Kingdoms
Funan, the first kingdom to occupy the present area of Cambodia, was formed in the 1st century AD, probably by Mon-Khmer peoples. Funan's culture, however, came mainly from India. Its port, Oc Eo, on the Gulf of Thailand, was a major trade link between China and India. Chenla, located northeast of the Tonle Sap, was originally a vassal state of Funan, but in the 6th and 7th centuries it conquered that kingdom. In 706, however, Chenla was split in two. The northern half, Land Chenla, was in Laos, and the southern half, called Water Chenla, in the area of modern Cambodia, fell under the sovereignty of Java. See CHENLA, KINGDOM OF.

Angkor Era
The reign of Jayavarman II (reigned about 802-850) began the Angkor era in Khmer history (see ANGKOR). In the early 9th century he returned from exile in Java, rejected Javanese pretensions, and strengthened the cult of the god-king. The great temples of the Angkor era were built by his successors to house their royal lingas, the phallic emblems of the Hindu god Shiva. The kings of Angkor ruled over much of the Southeast Asian mainland until the early 15th century. Their capital was the center of a network of reservoirs and canals that controlled the supply of water for rice farming and enabled the people to produce a surplus of wealth to finance wars and monumental construction. One king, Jayavarman VIII, built hospitals and rest houses along the roads that crisscrossed his kingdom during the 12th and early 13th centuries.
Early signs of imperial weakening could be seen in the rebellions of the 1100s. These were caused by the rulers' excessive demands on their people and by neglect of the irrigation system. Epidemics of malaria, plague, and other diseases undermined the population. The introduction of Theravada Buddhism—which taught that all could hope for spiritual advancement through meditation—may also have upset Angkor's imperial drive and its rigid social order. Loss of control in the Chao Phraya River Basin in present-day Thailand signified further weakening of the Angkor Empire.

Decline
After Thailand—or Siam, as it was then called—defeated Angkor in 1431, the Cambodian court was moved southeastward to Phnom Penh. Despite almost constant fighting with Siam in the west, everyday life in Cambodia's interior was little changed until Siam took Phnom Penh in 1594 and established a degree of political control. Vietnam's slow advance southward reached the Mekong delta a few years later. In 1620 the Khmer king Chetta II (reigned 1618-1625) married a Vietnamese princess and allowed Vietnam to set up a customs collection house on the site of present Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon). Thereafter, Siam and Vietnam each tried to control the Khmer kingdom by military occupation and the enthronement of puppet monarchs.

French Rule
In 1863 France, by then rapidly expanding its penetration of Indochina, intervened to slow the process of Cambodia's dismemberment by Vietnam and Siam, proclaiming a protectorate over the country. French rule in Cambodia, nominally indirect, was exercised through advisers whose word was final on major subjects. The Cambodian monarchy was retained, and a Khmer civil service was gradually trained. Roads, port facilities, and other public works were built, with emphasis on internal security and the export of rubber and rice. The restoration of the vast temple complex at Angkor Wat in the 1930s helped rekindle the Khmer people's pride in their past. During World War II (1939-1945), when Japanese forces were permitted into Indochina in 1940, the compliant French administration was left in place. On the verge of defeat in 1945, the Japanese removed their French collaborators and installed a nominally independent Khmer government under the young king, Norodom Sihanouk. France quickly reestablished control after the war, but Sihanouk gained full independence for his country in 1953.

The Modern State
Two years later King Sihanouk abdicated in favor of his father. As Prince Sihanouk he retained an aura of majesty but was much freer to manipulate the urban elite, who constantly jockeyed for high-status jobs. Sihanouk controlled them by organizing a popular movement that centered on village notables. Foreign powers, such as the United States, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), and China, seeking influence in the region, courted Sihanouk, who drew them into competition for the privilege of aiding Cambodia's development. His success in diplomacy abroad enhanced Sihanouk's political control at home. For more than 15 years he walked the neutralist tightrope and kept Cambodia relatively isolated from the turmoil raging in neighboring Vietnam. In so doing, however, he had to close his eyes to more and more blatant abuse of Cambodia's neutrality by North Vietnamese and Vietcong forces (see VIETNAM WAR).

Coup of 1970
In March 1970, while Sihanouk was abroad, his prime minister, General Lon Nol, seized power and sent his army to fight the Vietcong in the border areas. This drew the North Vietnamese into Cambodia, followed by U.S. and South Vietnamese troops. For the next two years Cambodia was a battleground of the Vietnam War. The United States and South Vietnam supplied Lon Nol's army and supported it with air power, hoping to gain a breathing space for the Saigon regime. Meanwhile, Khmer Communist party guerrillas, called the Khmer Rouge, were battling Lon Nol's regime. They were aided by the North Vietnamese and by Prince Sihanouk, who had found asylum in China. Hundreds of thousands of peasants sought the relative safety of towns under Lon Nol's control.

Vietnamese Domination
In April 1975, just before Saigon fell to the North Vietnamese, the Khmer Rouge seized Phnom Penh. Their subsequent regime, headed by Pol Pot, forced the entire population into rural communes, where death was the penalty for disobeying orders or even for revealing middle-class status. The Khmer Rouge tried to isolate Cambodia from all foreign influence. Their brutality, which may have caused more than 1 million people to perish, gave Hanoi in December 1978 a pretext for invading. The main towns and highways were quickly brought under the control of a Vietnamese-backed puppet regime led by Heng Samrin, as head of the Council of State, and Hun Sen, first as foreign minister, then as prime minister. This government restored much of the pre-1970 way of life, including Buddhism, but not the monarchy. Khmer Rouge remnants, meanwhile, with some support from non-Communists, continued resistance, especially in areas on the Thai border, and they retained Cambodia's UN seat.
Almost all Vietnamese troops were pulled out by September 1989, leaving the Hun Sen regime in a precarious position. In October 1991 the warring parties signed a peace treaty that provided for the UN and a Supreme National Council, which included most factions, to govern temporarily. Sihanouk returned to Cambodia and was named president. Sporadic violence continued in 1992, with UN peacekeepers often under attack.
In May 1993 the nation's first multiparty legislative elections since 1972 were held. The Khmer Rouge boycotted the elections, even though they had signed the 1991 peace treaty. None of the participating parties secured a majority in the elections, so the two major parties, the royalist Funcinpec and Hun Sen's People's party, and two smaller parties formed a coalition. In September 1993, after the new constitution was ratified, Sihanouk was named king; Norodom Ranariddh, the leader of the Funcinpec party and the son of Sihanouk, was named first premier; and Hun Sen was named second premier. The Khmer Rouge continued to oppose the coalition government; armed conflicts between the Khmer Rouge and the new government continued into 1994.